Ap Us History Exam Study Questions

“Semester Test Review ”

AP World History

By: Abraham Morden

12/13/2015

1. The “Neolithic Revolution” was the wide-scale transition of many human cultures from a lifestyle of hunting and gathering to one of agriculture and settlement, allowing the ability to support an increasingly large population. These Settled communities permitted humans to observe and experiment with plants to learn how they grow and develop. This new knowledge and ways of led to domestication of plants.
2. The “Features of Civilization” are a Writing System, Complex Government, Job Specialization, Complex Religion, Rise in Cities, Artist Architecture, Public Works and last but least Social Classes.
3. The first civilizations emerged in a place called Mesopotamia, the “land between the rivers” lies in modern-day Iraq, Iran, Turkey, Syria, and Jordan.  Here the first cities and the first civilizations began to emerge between four thousand and six thousand years before the present.
4. Cultural Diffusion is the gradual spread of cultural features between different groups of people.  This can take the form of technology, language, religion and many other things, or the spreading of ideas or products from one culture to another.  And an example of Cultural Diffusion is a country trading with another country.  
5. All civilizations depend on available water, and, of course, rivers are a fine source. Rivers also provided ancient societies with access to trade -- not only of products, but ideas, including language, writing, and technology. River-based irrigation permitted communities to specialize and develop, even in areas lacking adequate rainfall. For those cultures that depended on them, rivers were the life blood.
6. “The Code of Hammurabi”: The Code of Hammurabi, (or Codex Hammurabi) is a set of 282 laws and penalties devised by the Babylonian King, Hammurabi, in approximately 1700 BC. First the law begins by giving the authority by which King Hammurabi had the power to create, or invoke, the law. Quoting "Then Anu and Bel called by name me, Hammurabi, the exalted prince, who feared god, to bring about the rule of righteousness in the land, to destroy the wicked and the evil-doers; that the strong should not harm the weak; so that I should rule over the black-headed people like Shamash, and enlighten the land, to further the well-being of mankind." Eye for an Eye and a Tooth for a Tooth.
7. “Christianity”: My point of view in a short statement: It's about living in peace, loving our Father with our heart soul and mind and praising Jesus for giving us victory over flesh and the principalities of darkness. Excepting eternal life in peace with Our (Abba) Father and Jesus sitting at His right side and all the heavenly host. The Bible is the most important Book for Christians.  Christianity is the world's biggest religion, with about 2.1 billion followers worldwide. It is based on the teachings of Jesus Christ who lived in the Holy Land 2,000 years ago.  For ease of navigation, we include as Christian any group that sincerely regards itself as Christian, and whose beliefs are based on the teaching of Jesus. “Islam”: The religious faith of Muslims, based on the words and religious system founded by the prophet Muhammad and taught by the Koran, the basic principle of which is absolute submission to a unique and personal god, Allah. Islam is the fastest growing religion in the world. Indeed, one out of every five persons on this earth is a Muslim. There are nearly 3 million Muslims living in United Kingdom and the number is growing. Yet, unfortunately, Islam is also the most misunderstood religion. Muslims live in different parts of the world ranging from China to Argentina, Russia to South Africa. The country with the largest Muslim population is Indonesia. Slam teaches that God (called Allah in Arabic) is the source of all creation and that human beings are the best of His creation. He communicates by inspiring them towards goodness and by sending Prophets who deliver God’s message. Muslims believe that the first Prophet was Adam followed by a long chain of Prophets to guide humanity. The Qur’an, according to Muslim belief, is the word of God revealed to Prophet Muhammad. It mentions many other Prophets like Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Ishmael, Moses, Jacob, Joseph and Jesus. All the Prophets brought the same message, i.e., belief in one God, upright human conduct and belief in the accountability of human acts at the end of time. Islam is the final religion revealed to human beings through the last Prophet who was called Muhammad. He was born in Mecca (in Saudi Arabia) in the year 570 A.D. Muhammad was a very truthful and honest person. He was also very pious and detested the moral decadence of his society. At the age of forty, God asked him, through the angel Gabriel, to proclaim the religion of Islam publicly. God’s message to humanity was delivered in the Qur’an, which was revealed, to Muhammad. The Qur’an, which is the holy book for Muslims, contains 114 chapters (called Suras). Muslims believe that it is the pure word of God, unadulterated over 14 centuries. It deals with issues that affect human beings in their earthly lives; issues like piety, upright human conduct, worship, the creation of a just and virtuous society and the practice of ethics.  Judaism: Is one of the oldest religions in the world that still exists today. Jewish history, beliefs, and traditions were recorded in the Hebrew Bible beginning as early as the 8th century BCE.  Although it never achieved dominant numbers, the faith of the Hebrews—just one of many ancient Middle Eastern tribes—continues to exert a profound influence in the modern western world.  Jewish beliefs center on the conviction that there is only one God. This was a minority view in its time, but monotheism is now dominant in the western world—thanks to the influence of Judaism on the powerful religions of Christianity and Islam. Today, approximately 14 million people identify themselves as Jews. There are three main branches of Judaism, each with different approaches to religious life: Orthodox; Conservative; and Reform. Jewish life is rich in traditions, rituals and holidays, which commemorate the past, celebrate the present, and express hope for the future.  Hinduism: Hinduism is the world's oldest extant religion, with a billion followers, which makes it the world's third largest religion. Hinduism is a conglomeration of religious, philosophical, and cultural ideas and practices that originated in India, characterized by the belief in reincarnation, one absolute being of multiple manifestations, the law of cause and effect, following the path of righteousness, and the desire for liberation from the cycle of births and deaths. Hinduism has its origins in such remote past that it cannot be traced to any one individual. Some scholars believe that Hinduism must have existed even in circa 10000 B.C. and that the earliest of the Hindu scriptures – The Rig Veda – was composed well before 6500 B.C. The word "Hinduism" is not to be found anywhere in the scriptures, and the term "Hindu" was introduced by foreigners who referred to people living across the River Indus or Sindhu, in the north of India, around which the Vedic religion is believed to have originated.  Buddhism: Buddhism is a path of practice and spiritual development leading to Insight into the true nature of reality. Buddhist practices like meditation are means of changing yourself in order to develop the qualities of awareness, kindness, and wisdom. The experience developed within the Buddhist tradition over thousands of years has created an incomparable resource for all those who wish to follow a path — a path which ultimately culminates in Enlightenment or Buddhahood. An enlightened being sees the nature of reality absolutely clearly, just as it is, and lives fully and naturally in accordance with that vision. This is the goal of the Buddhist spiritual life, representing the end of suffering for anyone who attains it.  Because Buddhism does not include the idea of worshipping a creator god, some people do not see it as a religion in the normal, Western sense. The basic tenets of Buddhist teaching are straightforward and practical: nothing is fixed or permanent; actions have consequences; change is possible. So Buddhism addresses itself to all people irrespective of race, nationality, caste, sexuality, or gender. It teaches practical methods which enable people to realize and use its teachings in order to transform their experience, to be fully responsible for their lives.  Confucianism: Confucianism is humanism, a philosophy or attitude that is concerned with human beings, their achievements and interests, rather than with the abstract beings and problems of theology. In Confucianism, man is the center of the universe: man cannot live alone, but with other human beings. For human beings, the ultimate goal is individual happiness. The necessary condition to achieve happiness is through peace. To obtain peace, Confucius discovered human relations consisting of the five basic relationships: ruler & subject, husband & wife, father & son, older sibling & younger sibling and friend & friend, which are based on love and duties. War has to be abolished; and the Great Unity of the world should be developed. The Human beings are supposed to love one another in the name of God, but they are killing one another in the name of God. hope this helps.
   it is the system of ethics, education, and statesmanship taught by Confucius and his disciples, stressing love for humanity, ancestor worship, reverence for parents, and harmony in thought and conduct. it is the system of ethics, education, and statesmanship taught by Confucius and his disciples, stressing love for humanity, ancestor worship, reverence for parents, and harmony in thought and conduct.
8. The early River civilizations where located in the earliest civilizations that developed around rivers for the fresh water supply and the fertile land ex-: Tigris-Euphrates (Mesopotamia), Nile (Egypt), Indus (India), Huang He or Yellow River, and the Chang Jiang River (China).
9. “Republican Style of Government”: A republican form of government is a type of government in which the citizens of a country have an active role in the affairs of the government, and the government is not headed by a hereditary ruler such as a king. This definition leaves a lot of room for wiggle room, as you can see; many governments around the world are considered to be run along the lines of are publican form of government, ranging from dictatorships to representative democracies. Many people think that the republican form of government is a particularly strong and effective form of government. This type of government takes its name and inspiration from the Roman Republic, which actually involved the input of only a very small number of citizens. Many people in the West idealize Greek and Roman culture, so it is perhaps not surprising that the republican form of government has become so popular. Fans of this form of government argue that when well run, a republic truly represents the will of its people, and it can be easily changed if citizens desire changes.
10. A Democracy is a system of government by the whole population or all the eligible members of a state, typically through elected representatives.  A government by the people; a form of government in which the supreme power is vested in the people and exercised directly by them or by their elected agents under a free electoral system.
11. “Feudalism”: Was a system of government during the Middle Ages. Here's the general outline. Kings held the most power, and they granted land to Barons in exchange for soldiers. They would conquer other countries and protect the provinces. Barons allowed Knights to own land if they swore an oath of loyalty and devotion to serve in battle, if ever one arose. The Barons were also officially in charge of small communities and made all decisions. 
     Knights then gave the serfs some pasture for farming, but they expected gifts in return. These often included marks (currency) and goods of a wide assortment. With this method, every class in the medieval era fulfilled their basic needs. The more authority you had to begin with, the richer the benefits. Merchants and guilds men were not included in Feudalism, as their occupations were separate and not related.
12. “The Silk Road” or “Silk Route” refers to a historical network of interlinking trade routes across the Afro-Eurasian landmass that connected East, South, and Western Asia with the Mediterranean and European world, as well as parts of North and East Africa. The land routes were supplemented by sea routes, which extended from the Red Sea to East Africa, India, China, and Southeast Asia. Extending 4,000 miles (6,500 km), the Silk Road gets its name from the lucrative Chinese silk trade along it, which began during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE). The central Asian sections of the trade routes were expanded around 114 BCE by the Han dynasty, largely through the missions and explorations of Zhang Qian, but earlier trade routes across the continents already existed.[citation needed] In the late Middle Ages, transcontinental trade over the land routes of the Silk Road declined as sea trade increased,. In recent years, both the maritime and overland Silk Routes are again being used, often closely following the ancient routes. Trade on the Silk Road was a significant factor in the development of the great civilizations of China, India, Ancient Egypt, Persia, Arabia, and Ancient Rome, and in several respects helped lay the foundations for the modern world. Though silk was certainly the major trade item from China, many other goods were traded, and various technologies, religions and philosophies, as well as the bubonic plague (the "Black Death"), also traveled along the Silk Routes. Some of the other goods traded included luxuries such as silk, satin, hemp and other fine fabrics, musk, other perfumes, spices, medicines jewels, glassware, and even rhubarb, as well as slaves.[4] China traded silk, spices, teas, and porcelain; while India traded ivory, textiles, precious stones, and pepper; and the Roman Empire exported gold, silver, fine glassware, wine, carpets, and jewels. Although the term the Silk Road implies a continuous journey, very few who traveled the route traversed it from end to end; for the most part, goods were transported by a series of agents on varying routes and were traded in the bustling markets of the oasis towns.[4] The main traders during Antiquity were the Indian and Bactrian traders, then from the 5th to the 8th century CE the Sogdian traders, then afterward the Arab and Persian traders.
13. Alexander the Great was the son to Phillip II king of Macedonia taken thrown after father is assassinated by Athens & other Polis (age 20) well prepared by father 4 kingship(tutor-Aristotle, took him on campaigns) liked Greek Culture, wanted to fulfill father's dream of invading Persia(Greek & his army attack Persia) great leader brave & reckless fighter inspirational.  Alexander’s achievements were that he entered Asian minor 334 BC w/ 37000 soldier, freed Ionian Greek cities of western Asia, defeated large Persian army in Issus, Conquered Syria, Palestine, Egypt named cites like capital of Egypt(Alexandria) after him, He fought Persia at Gaugamela, won, got control of entire Persian empire moves to east & northwest into India-returns 1000s die in dessert.  He also influenced the people of India to the Greek ways or habits/culture.
14. A City State is a city that with its surrounding territory forms an independent state.  A city that with its surrounding territory forms an independent state.  A state consisting of a sovereign city.
15. Polis was the center of Greek political and cultural life or Athens.  Athens Birthplace of democracy. In its early history, this place was ruled by kings, later, they were replaced by aristocrats who had both money and power, "ruled by the people"
    Trade was encouraged to earn money. The gap between rich and poor (most people here were poor) eventually led to conflict - to help resolve this conflict:
    1) Draco 
    2) Solon 
    3) Pisistratus
    4) Pisistratus 
    5) Cleisthenes
16. “SPARTA!!!!”: Was One of the mightiest city-states in Greece, Extremely warlike and conquered many places (once they conquered a place, they would keep the people as slaves {helots} which enabled them to spend all their time training for war) their emphasis on war was not because of fondness for fighting, but because it was the only way to keep order in society since helots outnumbered citizens.  Demanded strength and toughness from birth, weak children would be killed instantly.  Boys were trained then at age 20 became hoplites (foot soldiers) and after 10 years of doing that they were allowed to leave.  Women had more freedom, like the right to own property. They did things like gymnastics because to have a strong baby, women needed to be strong, Led by two kings who served as military commanders. Over time, decision making fell more to an elected council of elders.
17. The Golden Age of Greece was after the Greek's wars with Persia, which they won, by luck and the help of Athens' powerful navy. The Greek's realized that they needed to become one nation instead of separate city states who almost only shared a language. 
    Athens as the head, decided to setup the Delian League, which all the city states in the alliance paid money to them in which they would create an army and navy in case the Persians tried to attack them again. A good idea, right? It would have been if Athens hadn't become greedy. They did create a moderate army and navy, but most of the money went to their city. They created temples, theaters, buildings, everything. It was the height of Athens the classical era, or the Golden Age.  Sparta did catch on though and decided that Athens needed to be stopped. They fought the Peloponnesian War for 27 years in which Sparta finally won, BUT destroyed Greece in the process and made them vulnerable to the Macedonian invaders. Phillip II conquered Greece but liked their culture and let them keep it. It was his son Alexander the great though that spread it across the known world. 
18. The three main great philosophers of Greece were Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.
    Socrates, the father of Western philosophical thought, left behind the Socratic method. It is critical to science and is taught by questioning. He focused more on the soul instead of science. Socrates influence Plato and let him take notes on his thoughts. Plato, Greek's best writer, believes in reincarnation, unlike most people in Greece. Aristotle, the logical philosopher out of the three, was unlike Plato passing on the works of his teacher. Instead, he denounced Plato and destroyed most of his work. Aristotle was the world's first biologist. Many of his findings are still used today. He classified plants and animals and came up with the (something no idea).
19. From the Founding of Rome in c. 753 B.C. to c. 509 B.C., Rome was a monarchy, ruled by kings. In 509 (possibly), the Romans expelled their Etruscan kings and established the Roman Republic. Having witnessed the problems of monarchy on their own land, and aristocracy and democracy among the Greeks, the Romans opted for a mixed form of government, with 3 branches of government. 1st the Powers of the Consuls, 2nd Consulship Safeguards, 3rd “Senate” - The Aristocratic Branch of Roman Government in the Roman Republic, and last but least 4th Assembly - The Democratic Branch of Roman Government in the Roman Republic.
20. Julius Caesar was stabbed at least 52 times by his friends. His last words were 'Et tu, Brute?' which means 'and you, Brutus?' Brutus was Julius Caesars best friend, and he betrayed him.  Caesar was a great ruler but his ambitions as his friends said killed him, they said he was to power Hungary.
21. The senate became very corrupt and Emperor Constantine the I divided the empire into two halves. He declared Constantinople the new capital of Roman society, claiming rule over all Eastern provinces. The Western Roman Empire lost its power over towns in the East, causing a great reduction in profits from the treasury and weakening them dramatically in warfare. Now their strength had been dwindled. Barbaric hordes of fearsome warriors gathered in the North/East of Europe in large groups, slowly gaining huge power and influence such as the (Franks, Vandals, Goths, Huns).
22. Crucifixion was used by the Romans for traitors and political rabble-rousers to make a statement that if you don’t follow the rules of Rome this will happen to you to. It's pretty obvious that they considered him a threat to their rule in some way. Anyone who knows how Jews handled lawbreakers and how Romans handled them will tell you that the crucifixion was entirely Roman. The story of Jews handing him over to Roman authorities for punishment has everything to do with when the gospels were written, not with the way things actually were at that time. The Jews of the time were rebelling against Roman rule; not as strongly as they would a few decades later, but there was definite resistance to having to obey a foreign power. Much of the resistance was couched in religious terms and the idea of autonomy of God's people. BTW, the gospels were written at a time when the Gentile Christians were trying to distance themselves from the Jews so they wouldn't be considered enemies of the state along with the Jews. The crucifixion story reflects that - even though crucifixion is a Roman punishment for not obeying Roman authority, the authors found a way to blame the Jews.
23. "Bread and circuses" is a phrase that can criticize either government policies to pacify the citizenry, or the shallow, decadent desires of that same citizenry. In both cases, it refers to low-cost, low-quality, high-availability food and entertainment that have become the sole concern of the People, to the exclusion of matters that some consider more important: e.g. the Arts, public works projects, human rights, or democracy itself. The phrase is commonly used to refer to short-term government palliatives offered in place of a solution for significant, long-term problems.  Juvenal here makes reference to the elite Roman practice of providing free wheat to some poor Romans as well as costly circus games and other forms of entertainment as a means of gaining political power through popularity. The Annona (grain dole) was begun under the instigation of the populist Gracchi in 123 BC; it remained an object of political contention until it was taken under the control of the Roman emperors.  A reference in the The Dictionary of Cultural Literacy (1993) states that Juvenal displayed his contempt for the declining heroism of his contemporary Romans in this passage. Spanish intellectuals between the 19th and 20th centuries complained about the similar pan y toros ("bread and bullfights").
24. Apparently the first immigrants into the North American continent were the Japanese who came across from the Bering strait as much as 6000 years ago and spread down the west coast. The Scandinavians were making sea trips across the North Atlantic to Greenland and subsequently Nova Scotia as far back as 4,000 years ago. Christopher Columbus from Spain was a relative newcomer 600+ years ago. The Americas were settled by immigrants, including those that call themselves Native Americans. They were just the first to come here and settle. Immigration refers to movement of people from one nation-state to another, where they are not citizens. Immigration implies long-term permanent residence (and often eventual citizenship) by the immigrants: tourists and short-term visitors are not considered immigrants (see expatriates); therefore, European settlers were not immigrants because there was no establishment of a "nation-state" here where the Indians roamed. The first immigrants to America as we know it probably were Italian, German, or Polish. No, I do not consider Africans immigrants because they were a case of "forced migration."
25. Genghis Khan was a mongol clan chieftain named Temujin, who through a combination of alliances and warfare managed to unite the mongol tribes under his command. Using surprising effective cavalry tactics he was able to invade and conquer many of the surrounding realms to create the largest empire in history up to that time.  He invented a couple of very useful things, the "encyclopedia" and the "library," neither of which you seem to have heard of.  Not to mention Google - he invented that one, too! And also he was a Very mean dude who killed millions for the Mongolian Empire.

1. The Incas were a distinct people with a distinct language living in a highland center, Cuzco. They were an ancient people, but had been subject to the regional powers during the entire history of South American urban cultures. They began to expand their influence in the twelfth century and in the early sixteenth century, they exercised control over more territory than any other people had done in South American history. The empire consisted of over one million individuals, spanning a territory stretching from Ecuador to northern Chile. Unlike the military empires in Central America, the Incas ruled by proxy. After conquering a people, they would incorporate local rulers into their imperial system, generously reward anyone who fought for them, and treated well all those conquered people who cooperated. So, in reality, the Inca "empire," as the invading Spanish called it, was not really an empire. It was more of a confederation of tribes with a single people, the Incas, more or less in control. Each of these tribes was ruled independently by a council of elders; the tribe as a whole gave its allegiance to the ruler, or "Inca." The "Inca" was divine; he was the descendant of the sun-god. The social structure of the Incas was extremely inflexible. At the top was the Inca who exercised, theoretically, absolute power. Below the Inca was the royal family which consisted of the Inca's immediate family, concubines, and all his children. This royal family was a ruling aristocracy. Each tribe had tribal heads; each clan in each tribe had clan heads. At the very bottom were the common people who were all grouped in squads of ten people each with a single "boss." The social unit, then, was primarily based on cooperation and communality. This guaranteed that there would always be enough for everyone; but the centralization of authority meant that there was no chance of individual advancement (which was not valued). It also meant that the system depended too much on the centralized authority; once the invading Spanish seized the Inca and the ruling family, they were able to conquer the Inca territories with lightening speed. Conquered people were required to pay a labor tax (mita) to the state; with this labor tax, the Incas built an astonishing network of roads and terraced farmlands throughout the Andes. Agriculture was tough business in the Andes. The Incas actively set about carving up mountains into terraced farmlands—so successful were they in turning steep mountainsides into terraced farms, that in 1500 there was more land in cultivation in the Andean highlands then there is today. The Incas cultivated corn and potatoes, and raised llama and alpaca for food and for labor. Of all the urbanized people of the Americas, the Incas were the most brilliant engineers. The Huari-Tiahuanaco performed amazing feats of fitting gigantic stones together, and the Nazca designed mind-numbingly huge earth-drawings that still exist today. But the Inca built massive forts with stone slabs so perfectly cut that they didn't require mortar—and they're still standing today in near-perfect condition. They built roads through the mountains from Ecuador to Chile with tunnels and bridges. They also built aqueducts to their cities as the Romans had. And of all ancient peoples, they were the most advanced in medicine and surgery. The language they spoke was Quechua which they imposed on all the peoples they conquered. Because of this, Quechua is still spoken among large numbers of Native Americans throughout the Andes. They had no writing system at all, but they kept records on various colored knotted cords, or quipu . The central god of the Incan religion was the sun-god, the only god that had temples built for him. The sun-god was the father of the royal family. There were many gods among the Incas, but the sun-god outshone them all. The Incas also believed that there was a heaven, a hell, and a resurrection of the body after death. At its height, the Inca civilization crashed into the European expansion. In 1521, Herman Cortés conquered the Aztecs; this conquest inspired Francisco Pizzarro to invade the Incas in 1531. He only had two hundred soldiers, barely enough to walk the dog. However, he convinced the ruler of the Incas, Atahualpa, to come to a conference at the city of Cajamarca. When Atahualpa arrived, Pizzarro kidnapped him and killed several hundred of his family and followers. Atahualpa tried to ransom himself, but Pizzarro tried to use him as a puppet ruler. When that failed, Pizzarro simply executed him in 1533. Over the next thirty years the Spanish struggled against various insurrections, but, with the help of native allies, they finally gained control of the Inca empire in the 1560's. Richard Hooker
2. Manorialism: Is a system of social ralations between seigneurs or lords and their dependent farm laborers, or serfs, in the middle ages (5th to 15th century.) Manorialism had its origins in the late Roman Empire, when large landowners had to consolidate their hold over both their lands and the labourers who workerd them. This was a necessity in the midst of the civil disorders, enfeebled governments, and barbarian invasions that wracked Europe in the 5th and 6th centuries AD. In such conditions, small farmers and landless labourers exchanged their land or their freedom and pledged their services in exchange for the portection of powerful landowners who had the military strength to defend them. In this manner, the poor, defenseless, landless, andweak were ensured permanent access to plots of land which they could work in return for the rendering of economic services to the lord who held that land, allowing a sort of bartering of one service for another. This arrangement developed into the manorial system, which in turn supported the feudal aristocracy of kings, 
3. The Christian Church, both the Western and Eastern branches were very important in the 13th,14th and 15th centuries. Especially in the East, until the fall of Constantinopol in 1492 when the Turks invaded. About the same time the Spanish Inqusition was happening, and oppressing Moslems and Jews in Spain.  Most Europeans belonged to the Church, they looked to the Church for spiritual advice which inevitably overlaps with material advice and in the end they trusted the Church with the material and political power to put their religion into practice. I don't personally agree with it but not being a member of the Medieval period it's not my choice, it was their's and they made it. Because he compiled one of the first, more than fairly competent, treatises on the beliefs of Catholics. There are some mistakes in it but they are few and far between and reflect the understanding many people had at the time. He was not a heretic (as one post suggested) because he never claimed that his work was infallible. He made mistakes which evidently even good Christians do sometimes.
4. Magna Carta (Latin for Great Charter, literally "Great Paper"), also called Magna Carta Libertatum (Great Charter of Freedoms), is an English legal charter, originally issued in the year 1215. It was written in Latin. The Magna Carta required King John of England to proclaim certain rights (mainly of his barons), respect certain legal procedures, and accept that his will could be bound by the law. It explicitly protected certain rights of the King's subjects, whether free or fettered — most notably the writ of habeas corpus, allowing appeal against unlawful imprisonment. Magna Carta was arguably the most significant early influence on the extensive historical process that led to the rule of constitutional law today in the English speaking world. Magna Carta influenced the development of the common law and many constitutional documents, including the United States Constitution. Magna Carta (Latin for "Great Charter", literally "Great Paper"), also called Magna Carta Libertatum ("Great Charter of Freedoms"), is an English charter originally issued in 1215. Magna Carta was the most significant early influence on the extensive historical process that led to the rule of constitutional law today. Magna Carta influenced many common law and other documents, such as the United States Constitution and Bill of Rights, and is considered one of the most important legal documents in the history of democracy. Magna Carta was originally written because of disagreements among Pope Innocent III, King John and the English barons about the rights of the King. Magna Carta required the king to renounce certain rights, respect certain legal procedures and accept that his will could be bound by the law. It explicitly protected certain rights of the king's subjects, whether free or fettered — most notably the right of Habeas Corpus, meaning that they had rights against unlawful imprisonment. Many clauses were renewed throughout the Middle Ages, and further during the Tudor and Stuart periods, and the 17th and 18th centuries. By the late 19th century most clauses in their original form had been repealed from English law. There are a number of popular misconceptions about Magna Carta, such as that it was the first document to limit the power of an English king by law (it was not the first, and was partly based on the Charter of Liberties); that it in practice limited the power of the king (it mostly did not in the Middle Ages); and that it is a single static document (it is a variety of documents referred to under a common name.
5. The “Crusades” were a series of wars between Christian and Muslim states in the Middle East, lasting intermittently from 1095 to 1291. The First Crusade (crusade meaning "marked by the cross") was called for by Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont in 1095. The main reasons: 1) Aide the troubled Byzantine Empire in reclaiming land lost to the Turks, 2) get the troublesome kings and armies of Europe out of the way, 3) establish a Christian kingdom in the Levant, and 4) unite the kingdoms of Europe in one cause. After this relatively successful campaign, four Crusader States were established and various other crusades were launched in an attempt to "reclaim" the holy land. (The fourth saw Franks and Venetians sack the Christian city of Constantinople.) In the end, they were simply struggles for land and power in a commercially/ideologically wealthy region.  The crusades were a time period when and within a point beyond, "the stump of the immense tree had been banded with copper and iron." They yet served a purpose in bringing some Bible truths to the forefront of none so-called christian nations and peoples. Yet christianity in itself was being attacked by nonbelievers of other nations prior to the great crusades. The religious christian monarchs and powers chose to go on the defensive and progressively attack their enemies as they were viewed and convert them by eans of power and enforcement. This meant war. In reality it served a two-fold purpose. It brought about the foretold coming world powers and put Jesus Christ name in the forefront of their power struggles which seemed to them to make everything alright with killing and mass warfare as it was at that time. The truth of the matter while it was not endorsed by Jesus Christ nor of his God it served the purposes of the forth coming kingdom to be established by Almighty God's chosen King. Before that time would actually happen, the new Kingdom was to 
   be proclaimed, the tree that would grow taller than all other Kingdoms that belonged to God, but then it would be chopped down and the stump of it's rootstock banded so that it would not grow but be restricted by the bands about it and yet the stump of the rootstock would not die. In time 
   long after the crusades, the real kingdom proclamation would again take place for a short time as the bands would be cut free from the stump and it leaps into growth again as the true undenying word of God that teaches and proclaims his kingdom in truth. Free from all of the lies and power struggles of man. We have seen those bands removed and the word of God is being proclaimed now in every part of the world as a witness to all people before the great day of Almighty God, Jehovah takes place on earth as we have been praying; "thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven" and every eye and every knee shall bend and give praise to the one who gives life, our Crerator, God and Father, Jehovah.
6. The black plague was a widespread pandemic that was caused by a bacteria. "The three forms of plague brought an array of signs and symptoms to those infected. The septicaemic plague is a form of blood poisoning, and pneumonic plague is an airborne plague that attacks the lungs before the rest of the body. The classic sign of bubonic plague was the appearance of buboes in the groin, the neck and armpits, which oozed pus and bled. These buboes were caused by internal bleeding." The black plague, also known as the bubonic plague, killed about a third of Europe in the late 1700's. It's spread by rats, and back then they killed any cats they could find, as cats were considered evil. It caused lesions on the skin that were red and later filled in with black. It is still around today in southern Africa. It's easily cured by penicillin and lives in the soil.
7. Born around 1028, William was the illegitimate son of Duke Robert I of Normandy, and Herleve (also known as Arlette), daughter of a tanner in Falaise. Known as 'William the Bastard' to his contemporaries, his illegitimacy shaped his career when he was young. On his father's death in 1035, William was recognised by his family as the heir - an exception to the general rule that illegitimacy barred succession. His great uncle looked after the Duchy during William's minority, and his overlord, King Henry I of France, knighted him at the age of 15. From 1047 onwards, William successfully dealt with rebellion inside Normandy involving his kinsmen and threats from neighbouring nobles, including attempted invasions by his former ally King Henry I of France in 1054 (the French forces were defeated at the Battle of Mortemer) and 1057. William's military successes and reputation helped him to negotiate his marriage to Mathilda, daughter of Count Baldwin V of Flanders. At the time of his invasion of England, William was a very experienced and ruthless military commander, ruler and administrator who had unified Normandy and inspired fear and respect outside his duchy. William's claim to the English throne was based on his assertion that, in 1051, Edward the Confessor had promised him the throne (he was a distant cousin) and that Harold II - having sworn in 1064 to uphold William's right to succeed to that throne - was therefore a usurper. Furthermore, William had the support of Emperor Henry IV and papal approval. William took seven months to prepare his invasion force, using some 600 transport ships to carry around 7,000 men (including 2,000-3,000 cavalry) across the Channel. On 28 September 1066, with a favourable wind, William landed unopposed at Pevensey and, within a few days, raised fortifications at Hastings. Having defeated an earlier invasion by the King of Norway at the Battle of Stamford Bridge near York in late September, Harold undertook a forced march south, covering 250 miles in some nine days to meet the new threat, gathering inexperienced reinforcements to replenish his exhausted veterans as he marched. 
   At the Battle of Senlac (near Hastings) on 14 October, Harold's weary and under-strength army faced William's cavalry (part of the forces brought across the Channel) supported by archers. Despite their exhaustion, Harold's troops were equal in number (they included the best infantry in Europe equipped with their terrible two-handled battle axes) and they had the battlefield advantage of being based on a ridge above the Norman positions. The first uphill assaults by the Normans failed and a rumour spread that William had been killed; William rode among the ranks raising his helmet to show he was still alive. The battle was close-fought: a chronicler described the Norman counter-attacks and the Saxon defence as 'one side attacking with all mobility, the other withstanding as though rooted to the soil'. Three of William's horses were killed under him. William skilfully co-ordinated his archers and cavalry, both of which the English forces lacked. During a Norman assault, Harold was killed - hit by an arrow and then mowed down by the sword of a mounted knight. Two of his brothers were also killed. The demoralised English forces fled. (In 1070, as penance, William had an abbey built on the site of the battle, with the high altar occupying the spot where Harold fell. The ruins of Battle Abbey, and the town of Battle, which grew up around it, remain.) William was crowned on Christmas Day 1066 in Westminster Abbey. Three months later, he was confident enough to return to Normandy leaving two joint regents (one of whom was his half-brother Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, who was later to commission the Bayeux Tapestry) behind to administer the kingdom. However, it took William six years to consolidate his conquest, and even then he had to face constant plotting and fighting on both sides of the Channel..... 
8. The proper name of the Byzantine Empire is the Roman Empire, or Empire of the Romans. The term Byzantine Empire has been applied by Historians...they NEVER called themselves Byzantine. They were what were left of the Roman Empire after Constantine relocated the Capital from Rome to Byzantium and the West collapsed (by the way the city of Byzantium was renamed originally New Rome but quickly came to be called Constantinople, the City of Constantine, but it's from its ancient name that the hisorians started calling the Empire Byzantine).
9. The reign of Justinian I is seen as a distinct period of Byzantine history by historians. It was a period of conquest, splendour, great prosperity and important public works, and administrative and religious reforms and imperial unity. Justinian I wanted to ‘restore’ the Roman Empire by reconquering the lands lost by the Western Roman Empire as a result of the Germanic invasions. He succeeded in defeating the Vandals in Africa, retaking this area, the Ostrogoths, retaking Italy, Sicily and Dalmatia (on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea) and the Visigoths in Spain, retaking southern Spain. This gave him control of the western Mediterranean. The large state revenues the conquests generated (they increased by 20%) helped him with an ambitious programme of church building and public works. He rebuilt the damaged Church of the Holy Apostles and the Hagia Sophia church in Constantinople, which were both badly damaged, and built the church of San Vitale in Ravenna (the centre of Byzantine rule in Italy). He built underground cisterns to secure water supply for Constantinople, including the massive Basilica Cistern (453 by 212 feet and 30 ft. high)). He built a dam is southwestern Turkey to prevent flood and the Sangiarius bridge in northwestern Turkey to secure a supply route to the east for the army. He built border fortifications from Africa to the East. Justinian restored towns damaged by an earthquake and built a new city, Justiniana Prima, as the new capital of the province of Illyria. He built a massive granary on an island near Constantinople to make the grain traffic form Egypt more efficient. He also established diplomatic relations with Ethiopia to bypass the land Silk Road through Persia because there were wars with Persia and managed to establish a local production of silk. Justinian I took measures to tackle corruption in the provinces and made tax collection more efficient by increasing its professionalization. He protected the purity of the official church and persecuted dissident Christian sects and paganism. He secured the rights of the church and the clergy and protected and expanded the monastic orders. He granted the monks the right to inherit property from private individuals and to receive annual gits for the state of from taxes and banned the confiscation of monastic property. He gave the canons of the church legal force and issued laws regarding the administration of church property, the elections and rights and obligations of the clergy, the conduct of service and episcopal jurisdiction.  Justinian I was one of the most important emperors in the history of the Orthodox Church. He described as a ‘nursing father’ of the church and put it on a more solid footing, and redefined its structure. Justinian’s rule was quite despotic. He regulated everything in administration, law and religion tightly. It was said that the church could do nothing contrary to his will. Justinian I’s most enduring legacy was his commissioning of the Corpus Juris Civilis (Body of Civil law), which was later called the Justinian Code. This was a digest of centuries of Roman civil law and gave a uniform organization this law, scrapped obsolete enactments and redefined obscure passages. It also included a collection of essays by famous jurists and a student textbook. The Corpus Juiris Civilis has provided the basis of the civil law of many modern countries. Towards the end of his reign, the splendour and prosperity of his reign was undone by the outbreak of a major plague which decimated the population of the empire. Its impact has been compared to that of the Black Death in the Middle Ages.
10. In Han China, the Emperor's position was always hereditary. There was no counterweight to the Emperor's power, although tradition dictated that he cooperate with his bureaucrats in administrative matters. Thus, the Emperor of China was an absolute monarch. Despite this, the official political philosophy of Imperial China, based around the "Mandate of Heaven" (an idea establish in the 11th century BC), encouraged revolt against ineffective Emperors. The Chinese Empire had always been more "integrated" than the Roman Empire, with each province being considered "integral" to the Empire (except modern day Xinjiang) and run by a large group of bureaucrats rather than the military or senatorial governor as in Rome. China also had a rigid hierarchical bureaucracy with set salaries compared to the comparatively pluralistic system of bureaucracy that existed in Rome. 
11. This population decline is expected to worsen in the next decade. It is largely the result of the economic and social upheavals of the postsocialist period, which have impoverished the population and caused a decay of social services. In 1999, Russians accounted for 81 percent of the population and were the dominant ethnic group in all but a few regions. Other major ethnic nationalities are Tatars (4 percent), Ukrainians (3 percent), Chuvash (1 percent), Bashkir (1 percent), Belarussian (1 percent), and Mordovians (1 percent). Dozens of other ethnic nationalities make up the remaining 8 percent. There has been a significant rate of intermarriage between ethnic populations.  In addition to being the largest, the Russian Federation is one of the world's northernmost countries. It encompasses 6,592,658 square miles (17,075,000 square kilometers), from its borders with Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Belarus, and Ukraine on the west to the Bering Strait in the far northeast and from its borders with Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and China in the south to the Arctic Ocean in the north.  European Russia, the most densely populated, urbanized, and industrialized region, lies between the Ukraine-Belarus border and the Ural Mountains. Seventy-eight percent of the population lives in this area. Two large industrial cities are located above the Arctic Circle: Murmansk on the Kola Peninsula and Norilsk in Siberia.
12. Pre-early Renaissance = Giotto, Gentile da Fabriano Early Renaissance = Masaccio, Piero della Francesca, Uccello, Leonardo da Vinci. High Renaissance = Leonardo da Vinci (not really as he did not follow what was popular in the High Renaissance), Raphael, Michelangelo, early Titian, Giorgione.
13. There were several reasons such as, Foremost, the Mongols produced a charismatic leader, Genghiz Khan, who united the Mongol tribes in a dream of conquest and expansion.  The Mongolian horse, a small and very tough infantry horse which could move very quickly and run long distances. Mongol troops were all horse-mounted and could move very quickly.  The Mongol bow was a very small composite bow which could accurately shoot an arrow more than 200 yards. Combined with the fast-moving  horse mounted infantry, the Mongols had a great advantage.  Mongol tactics focused on speed and mobility. If a city quickly surrendered, they were lenient, but if it resisted, they were ruthless.  When necessary, the Mongols were willing to co-opt needed talent. For instance, when they needed to lay siege to a city, they would rely on Chinese siege engineers to lay siege to Baghdad. Compared to the empires they conquered, they weren't racist in how they used people.
14. Prior to the invention of the printing press, books had to be written by hand. This was time consuming and expensive and books were only available to the very wealthy or to academics usually aristocrats or theologians etc. The printing press allowed texts to be printed quickly and easily. Books could be produced more quickly and cheaply and were thus more widely available to more people. Mass production of all written works (the bible being one of the first). Vast spreading of language and knowledge. Faster production of books and newspapers people learned to read because they had to if they wanted to be in society. The Newspaper was important when it first came out now they are mostly rags. The Internet has replaced news media much like the printing press before it. Most likely the most important invention ever made. Edison more than likely got many of his ideas from very large library he had. This must hold true for all greatest inventors directly or indirectly. Ben Franklin used printing press to finance and sell his inventions.
15. Martin Luther was a German theologian of the Christian religion and an Augustinian monk whose teachings inspired the Protestant Reformation and deeply influenced the doctrines of Protestant and other Christian traditions (a broad movement composed of many congregations and church bodies). Luther was excommunicated for the 95 Theses he had written in 1517 as a direct challenge to Church practice. His call to the Church to return to the teachings of the Bible resulted in the formation of new traditions within Christianity and his teachings undoubtedly impacted upon the Counter-Reformation in the Roman Catholic Church. Luther made contributions in fields beyond religion. His translation of the Bible helped to develop a standard version of the German language and added several principles to the art of translation. Luther's hymns sparked the development of congregational singing in Christianity. His marriage on June 13, 1525 to Katharina von Bora began the tradition of clerical marriage within several Christian traditions.  His belief’s where that Salvation was gained through faith alone. The Bible was the sole source of religious truth. The idea that priests or the Church had special powers was rejected. All Christians had equal access to God through faith and the Bible. Luther translated the Bible into the German vernacular so ordinary people could study it. The Lutherans rejected five of the seven sacraments because the Bible did not mention them: the sale of indulgences, confession, pilgrimages, prayers to saints, and the elaborate ritual of the Catholic mass. The sermon was emphasized instead of the ritual of the Catholic mass. Clergy were permitted to marry.
16. Having grown tired of his wife, Queen Catherine of Aragon, King Henry VIII of England sought to divorce her in favor of Anne Boleyn. Catherine, however, had very strong connections with the Pope (her nephew was Holy Roman Emperor) and Henry's petition for a divorce was denied. After months of frustration, Henry, with the advice of Thomas Cranmer (later Archbishop of Canterbury) declared independence from the Roman Catholic Church, and created the Church of England. The Church of England remained essentially Catholic in doctrine, except with the King of England replacing the Pope as head of the church. Henry then gave himself the divorce.
17. The scientific revolution was a movement that took place in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in Europe. During this time scientists began to apply what is known as the scientific method, whereby they used observation, experimentation, and special tools to discover the laws of nature. These newly invented tools included the microscope, thermometer, sextant (an instrument used by navigators to find the position of a ship), and slide rule (an instrument used to make rapid calculations). Among the most famous scientific thinkers were English mathematician Isaac Newton (1642–1727), English chemist Joseph Priestley (1733–1804), and French mathematician René Descartes (1596–1650).
18. Still popular in legal classrooms today, the Socratic Method is named after Greek philosopher Socrates, who taught students by asking question after question, seeking to expose contradictions in the students’ thoughts and ideas to then guide them to arrive at a solid, tenable conclusion. The principle underlying the Socratic Method is that students learn through the use of critical thinking, reasoning, and logic, finding holes in their own theories and then patching them up. This often rapid-fire exchange takes place in front of the entire class, so students get practice thinking and making arguments on their feet and also speaking in front of large groups. Although some law students find the process intimidating or humiliating—a la John Houseman’s Oscar-winning performance in The Paper Chase—when done correctly by a great professor, the Socratic Method can actually produce a lively, engaging, and intellectual classroom atmosphere.
19. India's culture is marked by a high degree of syncretism and cultural pluralism. It has managed to preserve established traditions while absorbing new customs, traditions, and ideas from invaders and immigrants. Multicultural concerns have long informed India’s history and traditions, constitution and political arrangements.Religion is important in Indian culture. There are lots of different religions, like Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Jainism, and Baha'i. There are hundreds of languages, with 29 having more than a million native speakers. Music and dance is a big part of Indian culture. This is seen in Indian movies. Most Indian movies have song-and-dances Bollywood (the Bombay-based Hindi-langugae movie industry) is the most internationally famous Indian movie industry, but there are other movie industries in India as well. . There are also art films; Satyajit Ray is one of the most respected Indian filmmakers. Cricket is the most popular sport in India. It's huge. People go crazy for cricket. Football (soccer) is also popular. Kabaddi is another sport in India; it's a type of wrestling game. India has a very long history of philosophy, literature, and education. Thus, Indians tend to take education seriously. Family is important in Indian culture, especially respect for your elders. Traditional Indian family values are highly respected, although urban families now prefer the nuclear family structure due to the socio-economic constraints imposed by traditional joint family system.
20. “Polytheism”: There are many polytheistic religions current in the world today...there are many more whose practice has died out. Every religion has its own texts and symbols, promotes its own social structures, determines whether there are prophets, and decides who they may be. You have to be more specific. Start with Hinduism, which is practiced by a very large number of people in the world today. Many Hindus are polytheists. Look it up on Wikipedia and then go from there.  “Monotheism”: Thinking that the idea that there is only one god (though according to some she might include several persons) is superior to thinking there is two or more gods.
21. The caste system refers to the system of stratification of Hinduism. Although its origins are not known and are complicated by the Aryan controversy, it is commonly thought to come from the Hindu scriptures where there are 4 "varnas" or caste clusters. The 4 caste clusters do not include the so-called untouchables. The top three varnas were Aryans. The four varnas are: Brahmins (priests, teachers), Kshatriyas (kings, warriors), Vaishyas (merchants, artisans), and Shudras (laborers, peasants). There is a color connected with the four varnas that may or may not correspond with skin color. The highest caste is white and the lowest black.
22. Government by divine guidance or by officials who are regarded as divinely guided. In many theocracies, government leaders are members of the clergy, and the state's legal system is based on religious law. Theocratic rule was typical of early civilizations. The Enlightenment marked the end of theocracy in most Western countries. Contemporary examples of theocracies include Saudi Arabia, Iran, and the Vatican.
23.  A new ruler unites China, founds a new dynasty, and gains the Mandate of Heaven.  China, under the new dynasty, achieves prosperity, The population increase, Corruption becomes rampant in the imperial court, and the empire begins to enter decline and instability.  A natural disaster wipes out farmland. The disaster normally would not have been a problem; however, together with the corruption and overpopulation it causes famine. The famine causes the population to rebel and starts a civil war.  The ruler loses the Mandate of Heaven.  The population decreases because of the violence, China goes through a warring states period.  One state emerges victorious, The state starts a new empire and The empire gains the Mandate of Heaven. 
24. The Pax Romana was a period of relative peace and cultural achievement in the Roman Empire, especially in the area of building (e.g., Hadrian's Wall, Nero's Domus Aurea, and the Flavians' Colosseum and Temple of Peace), and Silver Age Latin literature. Roman roads traversed the empire by land, and for ships, the Julio-Claudian Emperor Claudius established Ostia as a port city for Italy. The Pax Romana came after an extended period of civil conflict in Rome.  Augustus became emperor after his posthumously adoptive father, Julius Caesar, was assassinated. Caesar had begun a civil war when he crossed the Rubicon, leading his troops into Roman territory. Earlier in his life he had witnessed the fighting between his uncle Marius and another Roman autocrat, Sulla. Shortly before, the famous Gracchi brothers had been killed for political reasons. Proscriptionsunder Sulla and the Second triumvirate of Octavian (Augustus), Mark Antony and Lepidus, sanctioned civilian slaughter and property theft. Peace is a relative term, when looking at the Pax Romana. Romans no longer fought one another, by and large.
25. The Christian message as taught by Jesus and the Apostles was both inclusive and exclusive. It was and is available to all but it excluded all other philosophical or religious ways. The Roman religion with its many deities was an institution of the state. As Christians refused to participate in any pagan rites and rituals they came into conflict with the state and were seen as disloyal. The withdrawal of Christians from polytheism caused them to be called "Atheists". The early Christian worship did not require temples, statues, priests or sacrifices. Its simplicity fueled this charge. Many who gained financially through the Roman polytheism stood to lose through the progress of Christianity. Priests, diviners, image makers, and diviners all gained a living from so many gods and sought to spread slanderous rumors. Christians were blamed for all manner of calamities, wars, storms and diseases, which were said to be a demonstration of the anger of the gods. The ways of God are naturally offensive to non-Christians. "But the natural man receiveth not the things of the Spirit of God." (1 Corinthians 2:14). The majority of the Romans, particularly the rulers, were certainly not Christians at this time. The cruel treatment inflicted on the Christians was not inflicted upon the Christians alone. It was typical of the methodology employed in those days by a supposedly civilized society against all who it deemed worthy of such treatment. It is interesting to note that the cruelest of deaths, crucifixion, was forbidden to be performed upon Roman citizens - Christians evidently regarded as being disloyal to the state certainly were at times dispatched in this cruel manner.
26. The Ancient Roman culture was one of the most influential empires of its time. Many of their contributions can be seen in the world in modern times. “Architecture”: Roman architecture was quite modern for its time. The creation of aqueducts allowed water to be transported into the city for bathing and cooking and were so well built that some were still in use in the year 2000. The Romans were also among the first to build with concrete, creating buildings that stood the test of time. Arches were refined during the Ancient Roman period to support more and more weight when used to build large structures, a concept that is still employed for bridges and other structures. “Government”: Ancient Roman government was the model for many democratic countries around the world. They used a representation method in which Roman senators represented larger groups of people. The senators conducted the business of running the country alongside the emperor. At the time, only patricians from the upper levels of society could be senators. An early system of checks and balances was designed to prevent one person from gaining too much power. “Medicine”: The Ancient Romans established the first dedicated military medical corps to aid its soldiers on the battlefield. They invented many surgical tools and were among the first to use tourniquets to stop blood loss.
27. Christopher Columbus was searching for a better future, land, adventure and upon that he discovered the New World or you could say present day U.S.A today.  He also landed in San Salvador in the present-day Bahamas. In 1492, Christopher Columbus landed in the New World. Although Columbus wasn't the first person to visit North America (Indians had lived there for centuries, and even Vikings from northern Europe had visited the "New World"), he certainly was the first European to visit North American in a long time. His "discovery" led the way for many other Europeans to cross the Atlantic. But where did Columbus land? Columbus wasn't sure, since he'd never been there before. His logbook described landing on a bean-shaped island that had several small islands nearby, to the south and east. Grand Turk certainly fits that description. Even today, archeologists aren't certain where Columbus landed. Some scientists believe Grand Turk was the place. Other scientists think San Salvador in the Bahamas was the place. Maybe someday you'll be to one that will discover the clue that will tell us for sure. One of Columbus's ships, the Niña, was shipwrecked on his historic voyage. There happens to be a shipwreck on Molasses Reef, about 50 miles west of Grand Turk (see the map on Reef News’s Grand Turk web page) that fits the description of the Niña. Is that shipwreck the Niña? Scientists started to uncover the wreckage in the 1990s to try to figure out if it is that famous ship.
28. The agricultural advancements of the Tang and Song dynastys were life changing.  The first advancement was in steel. Steel is harder than iron and is less brittle.  It is also easier to bend.  You can make steel by combining cast iron and wrought iron at a very high temperature.  They made tools that helped farming advance and gave people the opportunity to work other occupations rather than farming.  The steel plow was one of the many useful tools they made.  The next advancement was in irrigation.  Irrigation was to give the land the proper amount of water.  The chain pump was a great agricultural advancement as well. It helped get water to the rice plants. There were much technological advancement in the Tang and Song dynasty’s.  The first technological advancements were in paper.  The earliest paper was made out of Mulberry bark.  It helped create large list of things to do with it.  They created a written history instead of an oral history.  But they still had their oral history. Printing played a huge role in the technological advancements of the Tang and Song dynasties.  The first printer was a block printer.  Then they made the moveable printer, which took less time, and also did not have to make new blocks each time they printed.  It was also lowered the cost of printing considerably.  The medieval Chinese people valued porcelain or china as we call it as one of the biggest technological advancements of the Tang and Song dynasties.  Porcelain is a hard white pottery.  It was made in China during the first century and still is made today.  Porcelain is said to be more valuable the older it is.  Lots of people use it as formal dinnerware. Porcelain is not just white pottery; people like to paint intricate designs on it as well.
29. Much of the European exploration of the Pacific was inspired by two obsessions, the search for the fastest routes to the spice-rich islands of the Moluccas (modern-day Maluku in Indonesia) as well as the theory that somewhere in the South Pacific lay a vast undiscovered southern continent, possibly also rich in gold, spices, and other trade goods. European exploration of the Pacific began with the Spanish and the Portuguese. By the late 1500s, the Spanish had colonized the Philippines and had discovered several of the Caroline Islands in Micronesia, as well as the Solomon Islands in Melanesia and the Marquesas Islands in Polynesia. Spanish ships, known as the Manila Galleons, regularly crossed from the Americas to the Philippines but seldom encountered any islands unless blown off course. The Portuguese, sailing around the Cape of Good Hope to reach the Moluccas, explored the eastern islands of modern-day Indonesia in the early 1500s and also briefly encountered the island of New Guinea to the east. In 1600, however, the vast majority of the Pacific still lay unexplored.
30. The main split in Islam is over how the leaders of the faith should be chosen - in particular, who should have succeeded Muhammad and over doctrinal issues stemming from which successors they accept, in particular, over what writings to accept as authoritative outside the Qur'an - these additional writing are referred to as the "hadith" and are composed of writings and collections of oral traditions. The Sunni branch accepts the first four "caliphs" as rightful successors of Muhammad and accepts hadiths narrated by the "companions" of Muhammad. The Sunnis believe that Muhammad did not specifically appoint a successor to lead the Muslim community before his death, and a group of his most prominent companions gathered and elected Abu Bakr Siddique a father-in-law and close friend of Muhammad as the first "caliph" of Islam. The Sunni canon of hadith took its final form more than 230 years after the death of Muhammad (632 AD). Later scholars may have debated the authenticity of particular hadith but the authority of the canon as a whole was not questioned. This canon is referred to as "the six major Hadith collections". The Shia, by contrast, believe that the leadership of Islam should have passed to his surviving family or "Ahl al-Bayt" (the People of the House) because Allah decided selected them as leader, not only because they are relatives of prophet SAWW. They assert that his descendants, known as Imams, are the only ones with special spiritual and political authority rule over the community. They also assert that Ali ibn Abj Talib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, was the first of these Imams and was the rightful successor to Muhammad, and consequently reject the legitimacy of the first three "caliphs". In the Shia hadith you will often find sermons attributed to his successor Ali. Shi'a Muslims do not use the six major Hadith collections followed by the Sunni, instead, their primary hadith collections are written by three authors who are known as the 'Three Muhammads'. Despite what the first answerer said - there are differences in what each group believes including what each considers to be faithful practice of Islam, acceptability of terrorist actions in the name of Islam and whether it is mandatory to kill or imprison anyone who chooses to leave Islam. Most outsiders would consider many of these to be "critical issues". 
31. The Two things that dominated Saharan trade in Africa were Gold and Salt.  Around the fifth century, thanks to the availability of the camel, Berber-speaking people began crossing the Sahara Desert. From the eighth century onward, annual trade caravans followed routes later described by Arabic authors with minute attention to detail. Gold, sought from the western and central Sudan, was the main commodity of the trans-Saharan trade. The traffic in gold was spurred by the demand for and supply of coinage. The rise of the Soninke empire of Ghana appears to be related to the beginnings of the trans-Saharan gold trade in the fifth century.
32.  Hernan Cortez was one of the leaders within the Conquistadors - a group of Spaniards lead by Christopher Columbus who were to conquer the Americas. He lead the expedition into the Aztec Empire (what is now central Mexico.) Using a fair bit of deception and luck, the Aztec leader, Moctezuma II, mistook Hernan Cortez and the Conquistadors (whom had horses, matchlock muskets and cannons, things the Aztecs never had seen before) as the return of their Serpent God, Quetzacoatl. With this in mind, he never ordered a defense of the empire and let the Spanish walk straight in. They occupied the Aztec cities of Tenochtitlan and Teotihuacan for a few years, using Moctezuma II's influence to appease the Aztec Empire and try and calm the increasingly worried Aztec people. Eventually, they stood up against Hernan Cortez's group of Conquistadors and forced them out. Shortly afterwards, the Aztec's fate were sealed. The Spaniards destroyed them, with their superior technology and cavalry. The walls never stood a chance to the cannons and the infantry never stood a chance against Musket volleys and mounted Cavalry. The Aztec Empire had been destroyed and the Spaniards began pillaging the gold and other resources that the Aztec's once controlled and sold them, making Spain extremely rich. 
33. The "Middle Passage" was the journey of slave trading ships from the west coast of Africa, where the slaves were obtained, across the Atlantic, where they were sold or, in some cases, traded for goods such as molasses, which was used in the making of rum. However, this voyage has come to be remembered for much more than simply the transport and sale of slaves. The Middle Passage was the longest, hardest, most dangerous, and also most horrific part of the journey of the slave ships. With extremely tightly packed loads of human cargo that stank and carried both infectious disease and death, the ships would travel east to west across the Atlantic on a miserable voyage lasting at least five weeks, and sometimes as long as three months. Although incredibly profitable for both its participants and their investing backers, the terrible Middle Passage has come to represent the ultimate in human misery and suffering. The abominable and inhuman conditions which the Africans were faced with on their voyage clearly display the great evil of the slave trade.
34. A monarchy is a form of government headed by a king or queen regnant, in the absolute form. There is another form of government called a Constitutional Monarchy which has as it's head of state, a king or queen regnant, who works with an elected government.  And good examples of some countries that are monarchy’s are the United Kingdom, Japan, Sweden, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia.
35. The rise of the West from the fifteenth and eighteenth centuries involved distant explorations and conquests resulting in a heightening and redefining of relationships among world societies. During the classical era, larger regional economies and culture zones had developed, as in the Chinese Middle Kingdom and the Mediterranean basin, but international exchanges were not of fundamental importance to the societies involved. During the postclassical period, contacts increased and were more significant. Missionary religions—Buddhism and Islam—and trade influenced important changes. The new world relationships after 1450 spelled a new period of world history. The Americas and other world areas were joined to the world network, while older regions had increased contacts. Trade became so significant that new relationships emerged among societies and prompted reconsideration of existing political and cultural traditions. The West's Commercial Outreach. Westerners, because of their superior military might, dominated international trade, but they did not displace all rivals. Asian shipping continued in Chinese and Japanese coastal waters, Muslim traders predominated along the East African littoral, and the Turks were active in the Eastern Mediterranean. Little inland territory was conquered in Africa or Asia; the Europeans sought secure harbors and built fortifications to protect their commerce and serve as contact places for inland traders. When effective indigenous states opposed such bases, Europeans gained protected trading enclaves within their cities. East Asian civilizations did not need European products; they concentrated on consumption or regional commerce. China was uninterested in international trading involvement and remained mainly outside the world economy until the end of the eighteenth century. China was powerful enough to keep Europeans in check.