Contrasts in Modernization of China & Japan

Contrasts In Modernization Of China & Japan

During the mid-nineteenth century, Europe was shifting its focus to expanding its domain into East Asia. At mid-century, Matthew Perry and other European nations forcibly "opened" China and Japan to the West and outside trade. Although, Japan and China both faced the same challenges of opening up their countries and ports to trade and embracing modernization, these countries responded very differently. With the aid of its strong leadership under the Meiji Era, Japan accepted new technology from Europe and engaged in a well-organized program of modernization. Contrary to the Japanese approach, China continued to view Western ideas with suspicion and contempt, and tried to maintain their traditional way of life amidst a changing world. Albeit both countries were reluctant to modernize initially, Japan's response to modernization allowed them to outgrow China and become a dominant world power. Conversely, China's lack of leadership and decisiveness led them to being one of the greatest empires to be divided amongst more powerful nations.

With the era of the Tokugawa Shogunate overthrown by Satsuma and Choshu—and the powers given to the Meiji Emperor—the Japanese government recognized that the unequal treaties inflicted upon Japan would remain intact until Japan caught up with the West and embraced the modernization of their government, economy, industry, education, and military. In an attempt to gain knowledge about the West—but still limit foreign influence in Japan—the Japanese government borrowed technology, social systems, infrastructure, and educational methods from Europe and the United States and adapted them to their own needs and culture. Accordingly, the oligarchs set the nation upon a course to foster a sense of nationalism and unity—by moving the imperial capital to Edo, now renamed Tokyo, and to reassert central government authority. With the abolition of decentralized feudalism, class distinctions were abandoned and the old ruling class—the daimyo and samurai—no longer ruled the land. As the Meiji leaders began modernizing certain aspects of Japan, they discovered that in order for modernization to be successful it was an all-or-none phenomenon. As a result, Japan created a conscripted army and established a modern system of land taxation to ensure a continuous income to finance various modernization programs. However, discontent among the peasants and the samurai class led to the formation of political parties campaigning for popular and civil rights, elections, and a constitution—eventually leading into the Satsuma Rebellion led by Saigo Takamori. Although the new conscript army quickly put down the rebellion, it convinced the Meiji leaders that adopting a constitution would broaden the base of popular support for the government and raise the position of the Emperor. Moreover, Japan believed that a constitution based on Western models would gain Western appreciation and allow them to better argue for a revision of the unequal treaties. Appropriately, Ito Hirobumi adopted an undemocratic and very conservative Prussian Constitution that severely limited the powers of Parliament (The Diet) and called for effective power to be concentrated around the Emperor—who was viewed as "sacred and inviolable" and above the constitution.

Although the constitution was undemocratic, Japan's adoption of a Western political structure helped it to become a modern state. Impressed by Japan's rise, the West ratified the unequal treaties and ended extraterritoriality in Japan through the Anglo-Japanese Treaty in 1894. This coincided with the Japan's victories in the Sino-Japanese War—followed by the Russo-Japanese War—and the emergence of Japan as a major world power. Japan's support and acceptance of modernization directed the course of the nation for decades to come.

Despite the advances made in Europe and Japan, China continued to believe in their inherent superiority and saw no need to adopt modern ways—with disastrous consequences for the country. As a result of China's loss in the Opium Wars during the mid-nineteenth century, China was forced to accept a series of humiliating European treaties and grant all English subjects extraterritoriality in the treaty ports. China was slow in their response to such challenges, partly due to the strict doctrines of Confucianism surrounding Chinese culture that worked to limit their knowledge of the rest of the world. Nonetheless, a modest program of reform and modernization ensued following China's defeat at the hands of the Japanese in 1895. However, anti-European sentiment in China led to the Chinese government supporting underground organizations and movements—such as the Boxer Rebellion—that wanted to preserve the ancient Chinese culture. The Manchu dynasty