How the Memory Operates Psychology

How the Memory Operates

Abigail Hale

American InterContinental University

Abstract

Memory begins with perception and the process of sending stimuli to different areas of the brain for processing.  The function of the brain for information retention begins with encoding, then storage and retrieval.  In other words, the stimuli is sensed, then stored for a short time and finally sent to the long-term memory for storage.  Many different factors determine what memories will be discarded, and what will be retained.  Proactive and retroactive interference play roles in how people use and store that information.  There are many ways that people can lose memory function, but there are also ways that a person can keep their memory sharp.

The Complexity of Each Step

        All memories begin with perception, and the sensory memory; perception and the sensations involved with it travel to the hippocampus.  Perception and visualization invoke a rapid analysis of stimuli in many different stages.  Once the input has been processed, it is then matched with input that has been stored in the memory.  Some input will undergo enrichment processing where the new stimuli can trigger associations with experiences or images.  Information from the sensory memory flows to the working memory, in the working memory information is encoded, and then sent to the long-term memory.  Once information has arrived at the long-term memory, it is again encoded and left there for retrieval later.  Encoding and retrieval can be done by both short-term and long-term memory.  

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The Sensory Memory is the shortest term of memory.  Impressions are retained for a short while after the stimuli has ended.  The information in the sensory memory is not attended to; it is quickly being replaced with other information/stimuli.  The normal length of time that information stays in the Sensory Memory is between one and two seconds.  After time the information begins to decay due to interference of other sensory information.  Information from the Sensory Memory is transferred to the short-term memory.  The short-term memory, is a temporary storage area, this is why things are sometimes forgotten.  The short-term memory focusses on maintenance rehearsal.  It is also referred to as the working area of the memory, and it is located in the prefrontal cortex at the front of the brain.  There are two neural loops, one for visual data, and the other for language.  Broca’s area is known as the inner voice of the phonological and visual loops.  Items only stay in the short-term memory for about a minute or so; since it too is constantly being filled with new data, some consider the short-term memory as a type of scratch pad of information.  When information reaches into the long-term memory, the neural circuits communicate through synapses.  There are two different types of long-term memory explicit and implicit.  Explicit, also known as declarative it is facts, words, ideas, and life events, this type of information when retrieved is done consciously.  Implicit, also known as non-declarative, is procedural type skills, habits, and emotional conditioning.  When implicit knowledge is being used, it can influence thought and behaviors without any conscious awareness.  

Stress Can Enhance and Impede Memory Retrieval

        Stress is a huge factor in memory retrieval.  The hippocampus and frontal cortex have dense amounts of receptors for stress hormones.  High levels of cortisol can impair performance on hippocampal dependent memory tasks.  Stress hormones discharge glucocorticoids; it is this discharge of hormones that can increase memory retrieval.  “Glucocorticoids, interacting with adrenergic activation in the basolateral amygdala and the hippocampus, appear to impair delayed memory retrieval, but enhance memory consolidation” (Payne, JD., 2007).  Stress frequently impairs memory for neutral materials; however, it boosts retention for emotionally exciting things.  Timing of stressful influences decide which phase of memory will be stimulated by cortisol levels.

Proactive and Retroactive Interference

“Interference occurs when the learning of something new causes the forgetting of older material” (Ankala, V., 2011) based on competition between the two.  “Proactive interference occurs when, in any given context, past memories inhibit an individual’s full potential to retain new memories.  Retroactive interference is a phenomenon that occurs when newly learned information interferes with and impedes the recall of previously learned information” (Ankala, V., 2011).  This happens when new memories prevent a person’s full potential to remember old memories.  While studying it is important to try to relate what is being learned to other parts of everyday life, by being an active learner.  While studying it is necessary to ask one’s self-questions about the content, they are reviewing.  Take notes on the material that is read for class, but rewrite what has been read in their own words, this is an effective way to rate how much material has been learned, and the level of understanding of the material.  When learning new material it can be beneficial to create acronyms, or rhymes, and try to visual what it is that you are trying to learn.